The male head has control over children produced by the children of the group. However, both the organization of the family unit, marriage, decent systems and the structure of kinship relations vary from society to society and through time (Ingiabuna et al. ii. Most of these ceremonies are religious. The anthropology of the Caribbean has been called "the battle ground for competing. Their roles include the following:- i. Severing the ties of kinship is among the body sins and it is among the major sins. Second, an identifying drum beat used at ceremonies. ix. Land was owned by the community. Once the negotiations are over then dowry payment would begin. MARRIAGE This is the third rite that an individual is expected to go through in life. But they are terminologically differentiated from parallel cousins and from sisters. Kinship ties definition: Kinship is the relationship between members of the same family. Lusaka: National Educational Company of Zambia, and Kenneth Kaunda Foundation, 1970. This review finds that parental care remains the best care setting and should be highly encouraged within African society. 6. During the period earlier than 1940s, marriages remained completely matrilocal during the couples entire life. Having so many people in this household should not be confused with other types of large families like, ..the joint family, with its several married brothers and their families living together or the extended family, consisting of a group of married off spring living in one household under a patriarch or matriarch.11 The Baganda are also patrilocal. x. Measures that are taken to make sure virginity is preserved i).Virginity is highly valued and a girl is meant to preserve her virginity until marriage. It is feared and marked with a lot of sorrow. They are consulted in cases where western medicine has failed. Marriage involves much more than just the bride.37, This author would further argue that among the African people that are conductors, participants, and are actors in these marriages, the concept buy, purchase a wife or bride does not exist. In male-speaking terms, fathers sisters daughters (cross-cousins) are called cousins. - They give direction on funeral ceremonies and advise on what should be done about the ceremony. Information on traditional marriage customs among both patrilineal and matrilineal peoples of Zambia is available in Yizenge A. Chondoka, Traditional Marriages in Zambia: A Study in Cultural History, (Ndola: Mission Press, 1988). It is the kinship ties which determine a person's rights, responsibilities and behaviour. Marriage ceremonies brought people together as they came together to rejoice. In view of the poor development of social security systems outside the family, hardly anyone would wish to escape the power of kinship ties. - The naming of the child takes place some days after birth. Divorce and separation are discouraged. Rituals associated with death vary from one community to another. they are consulted before installation of a new king in some communities. - Gambling. It marks change from childhood to adulthood. People that belong to the same kinship system are referred to as kin. - When the baby arrives, the sex of the baby is announced by ululations. The naming of a child is therefore an important occasion, which is often marked with ceremonies. Bride wealth has lost its original meaning and has been commercialized. Researchers have examined the effects of matrilineal kinship systems for women's preferences, including preference for competition, altruism, risk, and political participation. The African notion of "family," by contrast, typically refers to the extended family system. Courage is usually praised. Maintaining ties of kinship is the way to the security of the Muslim nation. For example honesty is expected in marriage. 5. 5. - They are kept company. v. They drive a way witches and evil spirits. Th importance whice h UNICEF attaches to the family is also based on the Conventio onn the Eliminatio onf - Marriage raised the status of the couples once somebody was married he was given a lot of respect. 4. Dishonoring or insulting God. 2. Similar customs or rules of restrictions in interaction apply between many other kin in a traditional African family. Marriage is no longer a must and many people decide not to marry. People who have gone to school see the aged as old fashioned (generation gap) 6. Naming gives identity to a person before a child is given a name she or he is not considered as having full identity. Economic hardships that has been due to introduction of money economy. In some communities as soon as a woman realizes she is expecting, she and the husband completely stops having sexual intercourse until after birth. A Bemba belongs to his mothers clan (umukoa), a group of relatives more or less distantly connected, who reckon descent from real or fictitious common ancestries, use a common totem name, and a series of praise titles, recite a common legend of origin and accept certain joint obligations.30. Children among the matrilineal peoples are brought up in a similar traditional extended family village social environment. 8. 7 Stuart Queen, Robert W. Habenstein, and John B. Adams, The Polygynous Baganda Family, in The Family in Various Cultures, (New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1961) Ch. They face challenges from medical practitioners who argue that they should go for formal training. To give the mother instructions on how to take care of the child. Third, certain distinguishing personal names. Seclusion nowadays is not very possible because of limited time. Patterns of Personality in Africa, in Responses to Change: Society, Culture and Personality. They are important because they have a lot of experience. ii. (New York: The Free Press, 1963.) Yet others could also die due to old age. However, the influence of mediums and diviners has been affected by Christianity, which is against consulting any power apart from God. Many women today put on trousers that initially were meant for men. Some communities such as the Maasai still maintain their traditional way of dressing. The man who is the heir to the widow has the additional family responsibility of adopting the widows family. Some reflect the condition of weather or season at the time of birth. Because of this, extended families among the Bemba are not really as large as those found, especially among patriarchal polygynous traditional families in other tribes be it in Southern, Eastern, or West Africa.28 Polygamy is relatively speaking uncommon in this area and the institution is not an essential part of the Bemba family and economic life as it is among so many Bantu peoples.29, The Bembas kinship is based on descent in the matrilineal line. vii. The cultural and physical diversity added with the dramatic social changes of the last three decades on the continent makes the family pattern situation so variegated as to defy any sweeping generalizations. - Also include the dead and those yet to be born and the departed relatives. ii. This explains why the family household included servants, female slaves, and their children. pp.164-202. A clan is made up of a family who either are related by blood and marriage. There was fair distribution of wealth to even those who did not have. Famous Sociologist H.M. Johnson identified six important bases of kinship which are described below: (1) Sex: Kinship relation is differentiated in each society on the basis of sex. It is not possible to gather initiates together in some communities. The effective boundaries of the network vary for different people, over time and for different contents. ii. The verb kulobola is very specific meaning the valuables that are given partially or in full to the girls people to legitimate or seal the marriage. 7. Everyone has an obligation to marry or get married. Death -The rites or ceremonies conducted on such occasions differ from one community to another. 1. 5. Edited by G.A. The birth of a child is no longer a communal affair but a family affair. But however, after a few years of contact with white civilization and subsequent social change, the custom has gradually changed. The San society in general and the kinship system in particular are very different from contemporary American society. - People do not have a lot of attachment to land, as there are other means of survival. They are people who claim a common ancestry and are related by blood. - Protection charms are tied around the neck or the waist of the child. 4. it governs behavior towards each other - Kinship binds together the entire life of a community, the departed and those yet to be born. This can begin as early as childhood or before the children are born. Ch. b) Outline the role of priests in Traditional African communities. Among the Chewa of Eastern Zambia, the custom of man living with his wifes parents temporarily or permanently was known as Ukamwini.23. Education of children has been left to teachers. These changes have been brought about by:- i. - Through marriage, the living dead and those yet to be born are brought together. 1 Lucy P. Mair, African Marriage and Social Change, in Survey of African Marriage and Family Life, Edited by Arthur Phillips, (London: Oxford University Press, 1953) pp.1 177. Rites of passage: These are ceremonies that are performed to a group of people to mark important stages of life. The subject of traditional family patterns in Africa is so broad that it cannot be adequately addressed in one chapter. - They can foretell the future by receiving visions, dreams or words from God. All the members come together in times of need. For example, in the polygynous African family, like among the Baganda, and many others, your fathers wives and brothers were not just mothers and fathers just as mere kinship terms. First, two animal totems from one of which the clan derives its name. It has been widely documented, particularly in Western cultural settings, that women prefer to compete less than men. In some communities the choice is made by the parents. In the traditional African Community, marriage was considered incomplete without children. 3. (New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1961) p.68. 6) There is problem of correct dosage of traditional medicine. They include;- 1. - Life also continues after death, death does not mark the end of life but is just a change of state. Because of this wide spectrum, it is not possible to explore all aspects of the traditional African family. 8. v. Taking oaths falsely. - Wife inheritance ensured that the late mans family would not suffer. When a girl is getting married her mothers brother must be consulted. 11. - Men are not allowed to go next to the delivery places. Everybody is a part of the other. Anthropologists have discovered that there are only six basic kin naming patterns or systems used by almost all of the thousands of cultures in the world. They are taught about morals of the society. PRIESTS/PROPHETS OR SEERS - These are other religious specialists who play a special role as intermediaries between God and human beings. This chapter only focussed on the matrilineal and polygynous patrilineal African traditional family patterns because they seem representative of the broad patterns that exists on the continent. Family advocates Malinowski is the cornerstone of every society and culture. The government, the church and non-governmental organizations have built homes for the aged. they are operational and obtainable in every society around the world be it traditional or modern. traditional agricultural systems of production and the increasing ownership of land by women, as well as education and access to contraceptives have reduced the demand for large families. ii. iii. - Wealth is no longer determined in terms of the number of wives or children. Young initiates are trained to be responsible husbands and wives in future. vii. Edited by Arthur Phillips, (London: Oxford University Press, 1953) p.14, 37 Lucy P. Mair, African Marriage and Social Change, in Survey of African Marriage and Family Life, Edited by Arthur Phillips, (London: Oxford University Press, 1953) p.51 Naboth M. J. Ngulube, Some Aspects of Growing Up in Zambia. - A child who remained an orphan was easily adopted into another family. Relevance of diviners and medicine men today 1) Diviners and Mediums are still important in Kenya today. Communal activities: People participate in communal activities e.g. 6. Edited by Arthur Phillips, (London: Oxford University Press, 1953) p.1, 10 Stuart Queen, Robert W. Habenstein, and John B. Adams, The Polygynous Baganda Family, in The Family in Various Cultures. They also lead the community in offering sacrifices to God. In some communities if a woman is barren, she would bring another woman to bring children on her behalf. - Thankfulness. PaulVMcDowell. - They ensure the values and culture of the community is observed. To give the mother time to heal. At times force could be applied to get a reluctant young girl marry the partner. - Kinship ties also provide security to all concerned. Others bury the dead with property with a belief that they would continue to use them in the next world. The developments in science and technology. - They are many types of the wedding ceremonies. Asante, Molefi Kete., Afrocentricity; The Theory of Social Change, Buffalo: Amulefi Publishing Company, 1980. This may be due to urbanization and economic constraints. - In some communities e.g. v. It brings people together; relatives and friends co me together hence strengthening kinship ties. iii. 1. - It causes physical injury to the victim. It was used to bury the dead, the spirits were believed to dwell on land or below the ground. Among the Akamba and the Agikuyu. In this system, all brothers of the father are called father, all sisters of the mother are called mother, all their children brother and sister. - Life also progress from one stage to another. A change in attitude towards joint family is evident among the urban educated persons. However, it is not a form of payment as is mistaken by others. Professor of Sociology, Bridgewater College. viii. It gives the couple time to study the character of the partner and find out if he or she is the best. f. The grave is dug in a special place e.g. Some are circumcised when they are still infants. Family plays a central role in African society. RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS IN THE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN COMMUNITY -They are those who are believed to be endowed with special powers. Girls at an early age are taught a wide range of household and agricultural duties including cooking, cultivation and tending children. During seclusion there is sex education, which is meant for girls and boys for marriage. Majority of women today give birth in hospitals. 3. Changing attitudes to birth and naming 1. Piercing of the ear. Sometimes people mistake that they are witch doctors especially Christians. Urbanization has undermined the role of of the elders as it becomes difficult for elders to operate as the people come from different backgrounds. Role of priests, prophets and seers 1. That is one cannot escape it 2 It brings impurity to the family and thus several rites are observed after death 3 It deprives the family and the community of the individual. 3) They are fortunetellers and palm readers. They are neglected by their children especially those working in the towns. 12. During this period, the couples are given special instructions that prepare them for marriage life. 3. Kinship relationships were and still are important among African communities. 41 Molefi Kete Asante, Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change. Property could be owned by community, individuals or families. These primary ties, as we may call them,4 are biologically the same in all societies,5 though, functionally, they may differ from culture to culture.6 But kinship ties do not rest within the reproductive family. - The placenta is disposed of ceremoniously e.g. It is also a taboo to marry close relative. This is brought by the following factors:- 1. Kinship is a social relationship based on real consanguinity. In rural areas, the family typically . - Hardworking. 6. They are also given special instructions that prepare them for marriage life. It also gives them time to find out the background of the partners e.g. Family. 3. - A lot of bleeding can lead to the death of an individual. 7 Nobody knows what happens after life on earth here. The term 'brother' and 'sister' shows the sex of blood relations. Dowry seals marriage, before dowry is paid marriage is considered as incomplete. society. Importance of Naming 1. Extended Family: It ensures that children, orphans and the widows are well taken care of by the other members of the extended family. 2. There is a lot of secrecy surrounding the knowledge of herbs. Ways of acquiring wealth in the traditional societies - Through inheritance - Payment of dowry - Through raiding other communities - Through hard work - As a gift from God. After initiation one is now free to marry and has a right to inherit his fathers property. Scholars of the African traditional family agree that the one widely known aspect that distinguishes the African traditional family, say from the European one, is the perversity of polygamy3. While the basic functions of the family remain the same all over the world, traditional African families have undergone significant transformations attributed to an interplay of factors, including Christianity, industrialization, educational expansion, population growth, monetization of the economy, migration, civilization, and now globalization. 4. Responsibility of elders: - They help in the settlement of disputes. in some communities it is thrown to uncultivated land to show fertility. Introduction The primary objective of this paper is to define the African traditional religious system as the basis of understanding Christian spiritual warfare within an African context. 8. 5. Thesis. LeVine40 described some of the customs and patterns that surround interaction in the traditional African family as institutionalized restrictions, segregated patterns, and avoidance patterns. in women. Mitchell, J. Actual birth - During birth there are certain rituals that are performed to introduce the chills to the immediate and extended members of the family. Christianity and Islam were able to absorb many African religions because of each religion believed in a single supreme being that was the creator and ruler of the universe. Kinship is reckoned through blood and betrothal (engagement and marriage). What are the 6 kinship systems? Both the mother and the child are given charms to protect them. Impact of Modernism on Family. Some of them are (i) Rites of passage (2) Good morals (3) Participation in communal activities such as ceremonies, work, leisure activities and worship (4) Sharing of property and ideas (5) Division of labour. - Children made marriage complete. Explaining these changes would require a different chapter. The land belonged to the whole community. J. Clyde Mitchell, The Yao Village: a Study in the Social Structure of a Malawian Tribe. Everybody in the community is expected to work hard. Third, certain distinguishing personal names. Death is believed to be a next journey to the world of the spirits. 7. But rather the matrilocal extended family comprised of a man and his wife, their married daughters, son-in-laws, and their children. Changing Family Patterns: Sub-Saharan Africa, in World Revolution and Family Patterns. Each stage has its own features, some of which are perhaps peculiar to the Baganda customs and system of socialization in their traditional family pattern. Many people spend their leisure time watching videos, Television and films, Certain leisure activities such as soccer have been turned into well-paying professions. 4. 5) Modern science and technology also discourage people from believing mysterical powers. They act as intermediaries between God and human beings. Why the practice female circumcision is dying out. children born out of wed-lock are killed or abandoned. This was because: - i. Africans believe that land was given to them by God. false T/F: Female slaves generally worked outdoors while male slaves did domestic work. There is no proper dosage of the herbs. Meanwhile the man and her married sister do not live in one locality, as they must maintain their marriages. viii. Some have even gone as far as saying that for the African husband nothing else matters so long as he impregnates his wife every few years.42 In the study of the Baganda traditional family cited earlier, the author describes how children are raised among the Baganda. Some herbalists have been legalized by the government and have opened clinics e.g. During this period he conducted extensive research and field work in rural Zambia particularly in the Eastern and Southern Provinces of the country. vi. MEDIUMS AND DIVINERS - Mediums are people through which ancestors and spirits communicate with the living. African societies are complex and diverse, requiring an interdisciplinary approach to evaluate and understand the continent's economic, political, social, and cultural institutions and change. Living with new parents means no particular change in status; the biological parents do not forget their off spring and are always present for any ceremonies involving their children.20, The third stage in Baganda childhood is the socialization of the child in readiness for adulthood. In some instances a go between would be used to identify a suitable partner. Main factors which affect social change can be discussed a follows: 1. Through the kinship system, people learn the importance of sharing what they have with others. - Many people have moved and have settled in foreign lands, which are not their ancestral lands. 6. Religious (invisible) causes of death They included: i. The elderly are physically in active. drought, famine etc. 3. In the African understanding, it is believed that there is no natural death. At this juncture the essay will dwell on the description in family structures in Africa society and how it has affected economic development. According to Dziro and Mhlanga (2018), urbanization, HIV/AIDS, and poverty in Africa are all factors that stifle the effectiveness of informal kinship approaches to proper childcare and. - Rainmakers are special people who have the ability to make rain. Same ancestry: People of a particular community believe that they have the same origin e.g. - They counsel and guide the youth on matters of sex and marriage Why guiding and counseling was done by elders 1. DeVos, (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1976), 49 Stuart Queen, Robert W. Habenstein, and John B. Adams, The Polygynous Baganda Family, in The Family in Various Cultures. He has no rights on his paternal clan. The naming ceremony is very important early in the childs life. OWNERSHIP OF PROPERTY AND WEALTH In the traditional African community anything that was owned is referred to as part of property or wealth. The clan is linked by four factors. Although human beings have made tremendous progress during the last 150 years or so, yet they have not been able to wield full control over the nature. - An orphan is a child whose both parents are dead. Kinship systems provide each person with a defined role (based on age, gender, and other factors), and serve to link people via duties of care [35856]. largest kinship network of any descent system ever invented. 3. Kinship relationships also determine social obligations and responsibilities, such as who has the right to inherit property or who is responsible for caring for children 3. Yet, equal opportunities is, perhaps, the essential defining element of an inclusive - It is against Christian teaching on circumcision because God instructed Abraham to circumcise male descendants - It lowers the dignity of the individual (dehumanizing) - One can contract dangerous diseases such as HIV and AIDS. They advise the expectant mother on how to take care of herself. They also do the work of advisors e.g. - Kinship defines and enforces duties and responsibilities of individuals. This helps to control peoples behaviors. the pain the initiates underwent. They believe iron implements attract lightning. INITIATION - This is the second major important stage in ones life. - The introduction of money economy has reduced the value of land. 2. He was a Lecturer and Research Fellow at the Institute of African Studies of the University of Zambia from 1977 to 1990. They heal various diseases using herbs. It symbolized death and resurrection. It is also a way of remembering important events in the society. v. Marking of the body (scarification) - During initiation, the initiates are removed from the rest of the community. The education provided is a lifelong process. vi. T/F: Through slavery, forced separation of spouses, siblings, and parents from children led to a more expansive definition of kinship, and thus an extended family model took root. c. The corpse is washed using water. There are societies where prayers are made to the mother and the child. It can determine a person's political identity and the way money and property are transferred. Death must have a cause. Where as chiefs have a number of wives, it is very rare to find ordinary men who have more than one wife. - The government and churches have built homes for them - They are given food etc. The permissive society has also encouraged trial marriages. (2) Active leisure: This involves the use of the physical energy. 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